Brain Surgeries in the Stone Age

Signs of successful brain surgeries go as far back as the Stone Age.

Archaeologists have unearthed evidence of ancient surgery among the remains of people who lived in a settlement near Istanbul, Turkey, between the 11th and 6th centuries B.C. A skull, buried among the many remains undergoing excavation in the location of the ancient Roman city of Bathonea, was found to have been cut into, and examinations showed the patient survived the apparent surgery.

Excavation team member and forensic science expert Ömer Turan told Hurriyet Daily News, "The skull of this person, who is over the age of 30, was cut very regularly by medical workers, just like today's brain surgeons. It is a painful process to open the skull. A person cannot tolerate this pain and should be anesthetized, so this type of operation in such an early era makes us think there was a kind of anesthesia. Biological studies on the bones will enable us to find out which substance was used. The traces of recovery are apparent in the place of operation."

Over 400 small bottles have been unearthed on site. Chemical examination revealed that this terracotta unguentarium contained methanone, phenanthrene, and phenanthrene carboxylic acid. The study showed the bottles had been filled with the mixed chemicals deliberately, added with the use of specific calculations. These findings, and the number of bottles, led Turan and the excavation team to surmise the location was a production center. Turan told Hurriyet Daily News, "This place may be a drug production or storage center, like a pharmaceutical warehouse. There are studies related to the flora of the region. It is believed that this region was rich in plant diversity. The stock of these drugs may be here."

Source: Ultimate Facts
@https://www.quora.com/What-is-brain-surgery-like-from-ancient-times-to-the-lobotomy-era

Whales

Whales can't swim backward.

How would you describe the shape of a whale or dolphin? Wouldn't you say they are very streamlined? Very few appendages (like your arms and legs) stick out to slow the animal down as it swims through the water. A whale's body is shaped like a submarine or the body of an airplane.

The smooth, rubbery skin, the lack of hair, and no ears sticking out also contribute to the sleek body designed for speed in the water.

But it takes more than a sleek body to maneuver in the water. Remember, when whales and dolphins go after their food, they swim at the surface and dive to great depths. They need rudders and propellers.

Look closely at a whale or dolphin. You'll see that many have a dorsal fin, the fin that sticks up from the back of the animal. Scientists believe that the dorsal fin acts as a stabilizer or a rudder. You might think the dorsal fin has bones, like the fins on fish. But the whale's dorsal fin has no bones. Instead, it is composed of dense tissue, somewhat like a thick, folded skin ridge.

You'll also see flippers low on the sides of the animals. Those flippers are used for steering, balancing, and for stopping. But they are not used for moving forward through the water.

Forward motion is created by the whale's or dolphin's tail, or flukes, moving up and down in the water. It serves as the propeller. Powerful muscles running along the backbone and sides of the whale's body move the tail up and down in the water, providing the power that pushes the animal through the water or deep into the ocean. One way to remember that whales are not fish is that fish move their bodies sideways when they swim; whales move their bodies up and down.

Source: Ultimate Facts
@https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/todays-whales-are-so-huge-why-arent-they-huger-180969466/

Long-Range Snipers

A Canadian sniper hit and killed his target in Iraq at a staggering range of 3,540 meters.

The Canadian military confirmed this week that a sniper with Canada’s elite special forces crushed the world record for the longest-known kill shot. The unnamed shooter hit and killed his target in Iraq at the staggering range of 3,540 meters, more than a kilometer further than the last record set in 2009 by British sniper Craig Harrison in Afghanistan.

To pull a trigger and have it hit a target thousands of meters away is a remarkable feat. It requires fine-tuned physical and cognitive skills, coupled with a savant-like awareness of how a bullet traveling over 1,000 kilometers per hour will interact with the complex environmental conditions along its trajectory. Indeed, long-range sniping is a combination of physics, art, and luck. Here we look at the obstacles that stand between a sniper and their target, and how they adjust to land the shot.

According to accounts from the Canadian Armed Forces, the recent record-breaking shot hit its target 10 seconds after the trigger was pulled. Meanwhile, the Earth kept spinning. Accounting for the planet’s rotation depends on the direction of the target. If it’s easterly, the bullet will land higher than the shooter aimed. If the target is westerly, the bullet will shoot low. If you shoot straight north or south, where the axes of the Earth are, there will be no effect at all.

Source: Ultimate Facts
@https://www.bundeswehr.de/en/organization/army/news/snipers-invisible-precise-dangerous-part-1-5083800

The Vanilla Flavoring

The vanilla flavoring in a baked good or a candy could come from the anal excretions of beavers.

Beaver butts secrete a goo called castoreum, which the animals use to mark their territory. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration lists castoreum as a “generally regarded as safe” additive, and manufacturers have been using it extensively in perfumes and foods for at least 80 years, according to a 2007 study in the International Journal of Toxicology.

Castoreum is a chemical compound that mostly comes from a beaver’s castor sacs, which are located between the pelvis and the base of the tail. Because of its proximity to the anal glands, castoreum is often a combination of castor gland secretions, anal gland secretions, and urine.

The fragrant, brown slime is about the consistency of molasses, though not quite as thick. While most anal secretions stink, due to odor-producing bacteria in the gut, this chemical compound is a product of the beaver’s unique diet of leaves and bark. Instead of smelling icky, castoreum has a musky, vanilla scent, which is why food scientists like to incorporate it in recipes.

Source: Ultimate Facts
@https://kids.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/facts/beaver

1,000 Heart Beats a Minute

A hummingbird's heart beats over 1,000 times a minute.

Hummingbirds have long intrigued scientists. Their wings can beat 80 times a second. Their hearts can beat more than 1,000 times a minute. They live on nectar and can pack 40 percent of their body weight in fat for migration.

But sometimes, they are so lean that they live close to caloric bankruptcy. At such times, some hummingbirds could starve to death while they sleep because they're not getting to eat every half-hour. Instead, they enter a state of torpor, with heartbeat and body temperature turned way down to diminish the need for food.

Kenneth C. Welch Jr. at the University of Toronto, Scarborough, has studied the metabolisms of hummingbirds for more than a decade. His most recent research with Derrick J.E. Groom in his lab and other colleagues is on hummingbirds' size and energy efficiency. Using data on oxygen consumption and wing beats to get an idea of how much energy hummingbirds take in and how much work they put out, the scientists found that bigger hummingbirds are more strenuous hovering flight efficient energy users than smaller ones. The research was published in Proceedings of the Royal Society B.

Excerpts from a telephone conversation with Welch have been edited for clarity and length.

Source: Ultimate Facts
@https://unsplash.com/photos/wildlife-photography-of-brown-hummingbird-near-red-petaled-flower-T7BgXyf7JNY

Roller Coasters

The world's first roller coaster opened in 1884 at Coney Island New York.

In 1884, the first roller coaster in America opens at Coney Island, in Brooklyn, New York. Known as a switchback railway, it was the brainchild of LaMarcus Thompson, traveled approximately six miles per hour, and cost a nickel to ride. The new entertainment was an instant success and by the turn of the century, there were hundreds of roller coasters around the country.

Coney Island, a name believed to have come from the Dutch Konijn Eylandt, or Rabbit Island is a tract of land along the Atlantic Ocean discovered by explorer Henry Hudson in 1609. The first hotel opened at Coney Island in 1829 and by the post-Civil War years, the area was an established resort with theaters, restaurants, and a race track. Between 1897 and 1904, three amusement parks sprang up at Coney Island–Dreamland, Luna Park, and Steeplechase. By the 1920s, Coney Island was reachable by subway, and summer crowds of a million people a day flocked there for rides, games, sideshows, the beach, and the two-and-a-half-mile boardwalk, completed in 1923.

The hot dog is said to have been invented at Coney Island in 1867 by Charles Feltman. In 1916, a nickel hot dog stand called Nathan's was opened by a former Feltman employee and went on to become a Coney Island institution and international franchise. Today, Nathan's is famous not only for its hot dogs but its hot-dog-eating contest, held each Fourth of July in Coney Island.

Roller coasters and amusement parks experienced a decline during the Great Depression and World War II when Americans had less cash to spend on entertainment. Finally, in 1955, the opening of Disneyland in Anaheim, California, signaled the advent of the modern theme park and a rebirth of the roller coaster. Disneyland's success sparked a wave of new parks and coasters. By the 1970s, parks were competing to create the most thrilling rides. In 2005, Six Flags Great Adventure in Jackson, New Jersey, introduced the Kingda Ka roller coaster, the world's tallest (at 456 feet) and fastest (at 128 mph).

By the mid-1960s, the major amusement parks at Coney Island had shut down and the area acquired a seedy image. In recent decades it has been revitalized, however, and remains a popular tourist attraction. It's still home to the Cyclone, a wooden coaster that made its debut in 1927. Capable of speeds of 60 mph and with an 85-foot drop, the Cyclone is one of the country's oldest coasters in operation today.

Source: Ultimate Facts
@https://www.6sqft.com/90-years-ago-today-coney-islands-iconic-cyclone-roller-coaster-opened/

The Akhal-Teke

The Akhal-Teke is called the most beautiful horse in the world. It looks like it’s been dipped in gold.

The Akhal-Teke, a breed that is a direct descendant of the extinct Turkoman horse that lived in ancient times. There’s currently only 3,500 of this kind of horse in the world. This particular horse looks like he’s been dipped in gold.

The hair of some Akhal-Teke’s is so “fine and silky that it gives a special metallic sheen to any color”, according to the International Association of Akhal-Teke Breeding.

The Akhal-Teke has an incredibly beautiful coat that gleams in the sunlight. It’s a thoroughbred and stands between 58 and 64 inches (147 and 163 cm). In China, the horse goes by the name ‘the horse from heaven’.

The reason for its shiny shimmer lies in the structure of its fur, which is designed to act as a light intensifier and to throw back the light rays, according to the experts. It is believed that the ‘Akhal-Teke’ is born with this golden fur in order to use it as a camouflage in the desert.

Source: Ultimate Facts
@https://www.cowgirlmagazine.com/akhal-teke-turkmenistan/

Cockroach

Even after having its head cut off, a cockroach can still live for weeks.

To understand why cockroaches -and many other insects- can survive decapitation, it helps to understand why humans cannot, explains physiologist and biochemist Joseph Kunkel at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, who studies cockroach development. First off, decapitation in humans results in blood loss and a drop in blood pressure, hampering oxygen and nutrition transport to vital tissues. In addition, humans breathe through their mouth or nose, and the brain controls that critical function so that breathing stops. Moreover, the human body cannot eat without the head, ensuring a swift death from starvation should it survive the other ill effects of head loss.

But cockroaches do not have blood pressure the way people do. "They don't have a huge network of blood vessels like humans or tiny capillaries that you need a lot of pressure to flow blood through," Kunkel says. "They have an open circulatory system, which there's much less pressure in. After you cut their heads off, their necks would often seal off just by clotting," he adds.

Cockroaches are also poikilotherms, or cold-blooded, meaning they need much less food than humans do. "An insect can survive for weeks on a meal they had one day," Kunkel says. "As long as some predator doesn't eat them, they'll just stay quiet and sit around unless they get infected by mold, bacteria, or a virus. Then they're dead."

Source: Ultimate Facts
@https://www.pestworldforkids.org/pest-guide/cockroaches/

Las Vegas

From space, the brightest man-made place is Las Vegas.

The Las Vegas metropolitan area is located near the southern tip of Nevada, within the Mohave Desert. While the city is famous for its casinos and resort hotels—Las Vegas bills itself as "the entertainment capital of the world"—the wider metropolitan area includes several other incorporated cities and unincorporated areas (not part of a state-recognized municipality).

Astronauts on the International Space Station (ISS) observe and photograph numerous metropolitan areas when they are illuminated by sunlight, but the extent and pattern of these areas are perhaps best revealed at night by city lights. The surrounding darkness of the desert presents a stark contrast to the brightly lit street grid of the developed area. The Vegas Strip is reputed to be the brightest spot on Earth due to the concentration of lights on its hotels and casinos. The tarmac of McCarran International Airport is dark by comparison, while the airstrips of Nellis Air Force Base on the northeastern fringe are likewise dark. The dark mass of Frenchman Mountain borders the city to the east.

The acquisition of focused nighttime images requires astronauts to track the target with the handheld camera while the ISS is moving at a speed of more than 7 kilometers per second (over 15,000 miles per hour) relative to the Earth's surface. This was achieved during ISS Expedition 6 using a homemade tracking device, but subsequent crews have needed to develop manual tracking skills. These skills, together with advances in digital camera technology, have enabled recent ISS crews to acquire striking nighttime images of the Earth (such as this recent image of the Nile River Delta).

Source: Ultimate Facts
@https://www.thestreet.com/travel/leading-las-vegas-strip-attraction-has-a-new-problem

The Trauma of Rape

Birth can reawaken the trauma of rape. Eight out of ten women who have been raped experience complications during their first birth.

The study examines the relationship between women who have been raped as an adult - 16 years or older - and their first birth.

The researchers were surprised to find that as many as 80 percent of the women had to have medical assistance during the delivery.

The study shows that women who have been raped stop having strong contractions towards the end of the delivery process.

“Active intervention, such as a pitocin drip, does not seem to help; in fact, it seems to make things worse,” said Lotta Halvorsen and Hilde Nerum, Ph.D. candidates at UiT.

It appears that common medical techniques and procedures that are used during childbirth may reawaken the trauma of rape.

The trauma may be reactivated when the woman is on her back and is undressed. She is surrounded by strangers who are "having their way" with her body.

Women who have not been raped will have a completely different experience of the assistance they receive during childbirth.

Those who have been abused are more vulnerable. "Their experiences have been suppressed, but come forward during the birth," says Halvorsen.

Halvorsen and Nerum are both midwives at the University Hospital of Northern Norway (UNN). They emphasize that the babies that were born to the women in the study were not conceived as a result of the rape.

The study involved 50 women who all had been raped as adults. All were first-time mothers. In addition, the researchers recruited a control group of 150 women who were also giving birth for the first time.

The two researchers believe that doctors and midwives who care for pregnant women should have a greater focus on sexual abuse and rape. The issue is often shrouded in silence and shame, even though rape is one of the most violent and traumatizing types of abuse a woman may be subjected to.

Before the results of the study were known, neither women nor birth attendants would have thought that a previous rape could have negative consequences for delivery.

The 50 rape victims who were in the study have all been in contact with a mental health team at the UNN maternity clinic.

Halvorsen and Nerum have worked with the health team for ten years, and have heard women's stories over the years. The researchers believe that midwives and obstetricians must understand that a woman's life story also has an impact on how the birth proceeds.

An experience of rape seems to be a hidden reason for the different challenges that can arise during labor, both for the woman giving birth and for midwives.

Halvorsen says it is important that the midwife knows the woman's history, and it is especially important that these women are given the time and space they need to give birth without interference.

Source: Ultimate Facts
@https://www.speakyourmind.in/post/rape-a-continuous-loop-of-trauma

The History of Samsung

Lee Byung-Chul started Samsung as a trading company based in a city called Taegu in what is now South Korea, in 1938.

The Samsung Group is a South Korea-based conglomerate company that includes subsidiaries. It's one of the largest businesses in Korea, producing nearly one-fifth of the country's total exports with a primary focus on electronics, heavy industry, construction, and defense. Other major subsidiaries of Samsung include insurance, advertising, and entertainment businesses.

With only 30,000 won (about US$27), Lee Byung-chul started Samsung as a trading company based in a city called Taegu in what is now South Korea, in 1938. With only 40 employees, Samsung began as a grocery store, trading, and exporting goods produced in and around the city. It sold dried Korean fish and vegetables, as well as noodles.

The company grew and expanded to Seoul in 1947 but left when the Korean War broke out. Following the war, Lee started a sugar refinery in Busan before expanding into textiles and building what was, at the time, the largest woolen mill in Korea.

This early diversification became a successful growth strategy for Samsung, which rapidly expanded into the insurance, securities, and retail businesses. After the war, Samsung focused on the redevelopment of Korea, especially industrialization.

Source: Ultimate Facts
@https://www.lifewire.com/history-of-samsung-818809

Tetrachromacy

Some humans can be tetrachromats, which allows them to see more colors than a normal human.

Rods and cones, they’re the components in your eyes that help you see light and colors. They’re located inside the retina. That’s a layer of thin tissue at the back of your eyeball near your optic nerve. Rods and cones are crucial to sight. Rods are sensitive to light and are important for allowing you to see in the dark. Cones are responsible for allowing you to see colors.

Most people, as well as other primates like gorillas, orangutans, and chimpanzees, even some marsupialsTrusted Source, only see color through three different types of cones. This color visualization system is known as trichromacy (“three colors”).

But some evidence exists that there are people who have four distinct color perception channels. This is known as tetrachromacy.
Tetrachromacy is thought to be rare among human beings. Research shows that it’s more common in women than in men. A 2010 study suggests that nearly 12 percent of women may have this fourth color perception channel.

Men aren’t as likely to be tetrachromats. Men are actually more likely to be color blind or unable to perceive as many colors as women. This is due to inherited abnormalities in their cones.

Tetrachromats have one extra type of cone that allows them to see the fourth dimensionality of colors. It results from a genetic mutation. And there’s indeed a good genetic reason why tetrachromats are more likely to be women. The tetrachromacy mutation is only passed through the X chromosome.

Source: Ultimate Facts
@https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=204574502941658

Brain and Sleep

One sleepless night is the cognitive equivalent of being legally drunk to your brain.

Sleeplessness makes you quite productive if you happen to be the brooding male lead in a major movie. Travis Bickle drives the graveyard shift because of chronic insomnia in Taxi Driver. Tony Stark builds a few dozen new Iron Man suits after PTSD throttles him into perpetual wakefulness in Iron Man 3. A corporate drone creates an army, an ideology, and an alternate personality during his restless nights in Fight Club.

But don't let Hollywood fool you: In real life, sleeplessness cripples brainpower. In one study, the loss of a single night's rest had about the same effect as reaching the legal limit of drunkenness when researchers measured performance on cognitive tests. Insomnia impairs one's attention span and short-term memory, and these mental failings get worse the longer one goes without sleep.

Sleeplessness even disrupts the ability to read emotions; subjects in a UC Berkley study who had gone 24 without sleep were more likely to see neutral or friendly facial expressions as threatening.

Source: Ultimate Facts
@https://newatlas.com/health-wellbeing/pre-sleep-behavior-routine-brain-neuron/

Muscle Rate in Human Body

The human body has around 640 muscles (40% of the body's weight).

There are around 640 skeletal muscles within the typical human body. Almost every muscle constitutes one part of a pair of identical bilateral muscles, found on both sides, resulting in approximately 320 pairs of muscles. Nevertheless, the exact number is difficult to define because different sources group muscles differently, e.g. regarding what is defined as different parts of a single muscle or as several muscles.

The muscles of the human body can be categorized into several groups which include muscles relating to the head and neck, muscles of the torso or trunk, muscles of the upper limbs, and muscles of the lower limbs.

Source: Ultimate Facts
@https://knowledge.carolina.com/discipline/life-science/anatomy-and-physiology/muscular-system/

Drone Bee

Male bees die after having sex.

A drone is a male honey bee. Unlike the female worker bee, drones do not have stingers and gather neither nectar nor pollen. A drone's primary role is to mate with an unfertilized queen.

A drone is characterized by eyes that are twice the size of those of worker bees and queens, and a body size greater than that of worker bees, though usually smaller than the queen bee. His abdomen is stouter than the abdomen of workers or queen. Although heavy bodied, the drone must be able to fly fast enough to accompany the queen in flight. The average flight time for a drone is about 20 minutes.

An Apis cerana colony has about 200 drones during high summer peak time. Drones depend on worker bees to feed them.

Drones die off or are ejected from the hive by the worker bees in late autumn, and do not reappear in the bee hive until late spring. They would deplete the hive's resources too quickly if they were allowed to stay.

Source: Ultimate Facts
https://www.beesource.com/threads/bees-mating-picture.298993/

Rolls-Royce Ghost

Rolls-Royce Ghost soundproofing was so overengineered that occupants found the near-total silence disorienting. Acoustic engineers had to go back and add a continuous soft whisper.

Rolls-Royce unveiled its all-new Ghost in 2020, and it looks strikingly different from any Rolls-Royce that has ever come before. The Ghost is the ultra-luxury automaker's slightly smaller and somewhat less expensive sedan, and the new version is far more understated than its predecessor.

Designers and engineers wanted the new Ghost to be a relaxing and quiet space. But Rolls-Royce engineers realized they'd initially made the car too quiet inside. Occupants found the near total silence disorienting, according to the British automaker, because the lack of sound didn't match up with the car's movement.

Sound engineers had put 220 pounds of sound insulating material into the car, including inside window glass and in the tires. They'd also looked at things like the windshield wipers and air vents to eliminate even tiny noises that might not be consciously perceptible.

The result was a strange and unnatural near-total silence. This also made other noises, someone else's breathing or pants shifting against leather seats, stand out even more.

What was needed was a relaxing background sound. So the acoustic engineers worked on "harmonizing" various sounds in the car so they would combine into a continuous soft whisper. The seat frames, for example, naturally resonated along with the body of the car so dampers were added to adjust the level of that sound without entirely eliminating it. Also, a vent was added to the trunk, allowing some of the thrumming bass notes created there to escape while, again, not getting rid of it entirely.

Source: Ultimate Facts
: @https://www.cnet.com/roadshow/pictures/rolls-royce-ghost-black-badge/

Absence of Moon

Without the moon, a day on earth would only last six to twelve hours.

The moon can appear full, shining like a beacon in the night or just a sliver of a nightlight. Still, it's always there. But what if we didn't have a moon?

Nights would be much, much darker. The next brightest object in the night sky is Venus. But it still wouldn't be enough to light up the sky. A full moon is nearly two thousand times brighter than Venus is at its brightest.

Without the moon, a day on earth would only last six to twelve hours. There could be more than a thousand days in one year! That's because the Earth's rotation slows down over time thanks to the gravitational force or pull of the moon and without it, days would go by in a blink.

Moonless earth would also change the size of ocean tides making them about one-third as high as they are now. Forget about seeing any lunar eclipses or any solar eclipses without the moon, there would be nothing to block the sun.

Without a moon, the tilt of our earth's axis would vary over time. This could create some very wild weather. Right now, thanks to our moon, our axis stays tilted at twenty-three point five degrees. But without the moon, the earth might tilt too far over or hardly tilt at all leading to no seasons or even extreme seasons.

Source: Ultimate Facts
@https://science.nasa.gov/moon/

17

In Italy, 17 is considered an unlucky number.

One anagram of the Roman numeral XVII is VIXI, which in Latin translates as "I have lived", with the implication "My life is over" or "I'm dead". Some Alitalia planes have no row 17, some Italian hotels have no room 17. The 17th curve at the Cesana bobsled run at last year's Winter Olympics in Turin was "Senza Nome", or "Without a name".

Source: Ultimate Facts
: @Meta AI

Quartz

Quartz is one of the most well-known minerals on earth. There are many uses for quartz because it can conduct electricity under pressure.

Quartz is a chemical compound consisting of one part silicon and two parts oxygen. It is silicon dioxide (SiO2). It is the most abundant mineral found at Earth's surface, and its unique properties make it one of the most useful natural substances.

Quartz is the most abundant and widely distributed mineral found at Earth's surface. It is present and plentiful in all parts of the world. It forms at all temperatures. It is abundant in igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. It is highly resistant to both mechanical and chemical weathering. This durability makes it the dominant mineral of mountaintops and the primary constituent of beach, river, and desert sand. Quartz is ubiquitous, plentiful, durable. Minable deposits are found throughout the world.

Quartz is one of the most useful natural materials. Its usefulness can be linked to its physical and chemical properties. It has a hardness of seven on the Mohs Scale which makes it very durable. It is chemically inert in contact with most substances. It has electrical properties and heat resistance that make it valuable in electronic products. Its luster, color, and diaphaneity make it useful as a gemstone and also in the making of glass.

Today, billions of quartz crystals are used to make oscillators for watches, clocks, radios, televisions, electronic games, computers, cell phones, electronic meters, and GPS equipment. A wide variety of uses have also been developed for optical-grade quartz crystals. They are used to make specialized lenses, windows, filters used in lasers, microscopes, telescopes, electronic sensors, and scientific instruments. The material of beach sand is now the material of the world’s most advanced electronic devices.

Source: Ultimate Facts
@https://www.zmescience.com/science/the-quartz-crystal-whats-so-special-about-it/

No 'B' Until Billion

If you were to write out every number (one, two, three, etc.), you wouldn't use the letter "b" until you reached one billion.

Grab paper and pen and start writing down every number as a word. If you spelled out every number, you would get to one billion before needing the second letter in the alphabet.

0-zero, 1-one, 2-two, 3-three, 4-four, 5-five, 6-six, 7-seven, 8-eight, 9-nine, 10-ten

11-eleven, 12-twelve, 13-thirteen, 14-fourteen, 15-fifteen, 16-sixteen, 17-seventeen, 18-eighteen, 19-nineteen, 20-twenty

21-twenty-one, 22-twenty-two, 23-twenty-three.........30-thirty

40-forty, 50-fifty, 60-sixty, 70-seventy, 80-eighty, 90-ninety, 100-one hundred

101-one hundred and one, 102-one hundred and two....... 999- nine hundred and ninety-nine

1,000-one thousand

1,000,000-one million

1,000,000,000-one (B)illion

Stopping at one billion, all the letters used to form the numerical names would be A, B, __, D, E, F, G, H, I, __, __, L, M, N, O, __, __, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z (and Z is only included for 0). Continuing onward, C occurs in octillion, P occurs in septillion, and Q is used in a quadrillion. No word J or K is ever used to construct numerical naming.

After all, M as an initial letter to a numerical name doesn't get used until one million. The letter A (the first letter of the alphabet) doesn't get used in a numerical name until 101, one of the most commonly used letters in the English language.

Source: ultimate facts